DMLT 2nd Year Notes for Exam 2024-25

1. Haematology and Blood Bank Technology

Definition:

• Haematology is the branch of medicine concerned with the study of blood, blood-forming organs, and blood diseases. It involves the analysis of blood cells, their functions, and diseases like anemia, leukemia, and clotting disorders.
• Blood Bank Technology refers to the processes used in blood collection, preservation, and the preparation of blood components for transfusions, including blood typing, crossmatching, and screening for infectious diseases.

Detailed Explanation:

A. Haematology

1. Blood Components:
   • Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Carry oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the body.
   • White Blood Cells (WBCs): Part of the immune system; help fight infection.
   • Platelets: Help with blood clotting.
   • Plasma: The liquid part of the blood, containing water, electrolytes, proteins, and waste products.
2. Haematological Disorders:
   • Anaemia: A condition where there is a deficiency of RBCs or hemoglobin.
     • Example: Iron-deficiency anaemia.
   • Leukemia: A type of cancer that affects blood-forming tissues, leading to the production of abnormal white blood cells.
   • Thrombocytopenia: A low platelet count, leading to bleeding problems.
3. Techniques:
   • Complete Blood Count (CBC): A test that measures the levels of RBCs, WBCs, hemoglobin, and platelets.
   • Bone Marrow Examination: Involves taking a sample of bone marrow to examine the production of blood cells.

B. Blood Bank Technology

1. Blood Typing: The process of determining an individual’s blood group (A, B, AB, O).
   • Example: ABO and Rh typing.
2. Crossmatching: Ensures compatibility between donor and recipient blood for transfusions.
3. Blood Donation and Storage: Collection, testing, and preservation of blood components.
   • Example: Whole blood, red blood cells, platelets, plasma.

2. Clinical Pathology

Definition:

Clinical Pathology involves the study of bodily fluids, including blood, urine, and other samples, to diagnose diseases. It is focused on the chemical, microscopic, and molecular analysis of specimens.

Detailed Explanation:

1. Blood Tests:
   • Complete Blood Count (CBC): Measures the levels of different blood cells.
   • Liver Function Tests (LFTs): Assesses liver health by measuring enzymes, proteins, and bilirubin.
   • Kidney Function Tests (KFTs): Measures substances like urea and creatinine to assess kidney function.
2. Urine Analysis:
   • Routine Urinalysis: Detects various conditions like diabetes, kidney disease, and urinary tract infections.
   • Microscopic Examination: Examines urine for cells, crystals, bacteria, and casts.
3. Microbiological Tests:
   • Culture and Sensitivity Tests: Identifies pathogens and determines their resistance to antibiotics.
   • Staining Techniques: E.g., Gram staining to identify bacteria.

3. Immunology and Serology

Definition:

Immunology is the study of the immune system, including its structure and function. Serology is a branch of immunology that involves the diagnostic examination of blood serum to detect antibodies or antigens.

Detailed Explanation:

1. Immune System Components:
   • Innate Immunity: The body’s first line of defense, including physical barriers (skin, mucous membranes) and immune cells (macrophages, neutrophils).
   • Adaptive Immunity: The second line of defense, involving specific immune responses by lymphocytes (T-cells, B-cells).
2. Antibodies: Proteins produced by B-cells that target specific antigens.
   • IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD: Different classes of antibodies.
3. Serological Tests:
   • ELISA: Detects antibodies or antigens in blood.
   • Western Blot: Used to confirm the presence of antibodies.
   • Rapid Tests: Quick tests for diseases like HIV, malaria, etc.

4. Microbiology and Parasitology

Definition:

• Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. It focuses on their structure, classification, and role in causing diseases.
• Parasitology is the study of parasites and their interactions with host organisms. It focuses on parasitic diseases caused by protozoa, helminths, and ectoparasites.

Detailed Explanation:

A. Microbiology

1. Bacteria:
   • Definition: Single-celled microorganisms that can be beneficial or harmful to humans.
   • Examples: Escherichia coli (E. coli), Staphylococcus aureus.
   • Location: Found in the human body (e.g., gut), water, soil, and food.
2. Viruses:
   • Definition: Microscopic infectious agents that require a host cell to replicate.
   • Examples: Influenza virus, HIV, Hepatitis B virus.
   • Location: Found in humans, animals, plants, and the environment.
3. Fungi:
   • Definition: Eukaryotic organisms that can be unicellular or multicellular, including yeasts and molds.
   • Examples: Candida albicans (yeast infection), Aspergillus species (respiratory infections).
   • Location: Found in soil, decaying matter, and human body (e.g., skin, mucous membranes).
4. Protozoa:
   • Definition: Single-celled organisms that often live in the intestines, blood, or tissues of hosts.
   • Examples: Plasmodium (Malaria), Giardia lamblia (Giardiasis).
   • Location: Found in contaminated water, soil, or through insect vectors.

B. Parasitology

1. Protozoan Parasites:
   • Examples: Plasmodium (Malaria), Entamoeba histolytica (Amoebiasis).
   • Location: Often found in contaminated water, food, or transmitted by insects (e.g., mosquitoes).
2. Helminthic Parasites:
   • Examples: Ascaris lumbricoides (Roundworm), Taenia solium (Tapeworm).
   • Location: Typically found in soil, water, and undercooked meat.
3. Ectoparasites:
   • Examples: Lice, fleas, ticks.
   • Location: Found on the skin or hair of humans and animals.

5. Medical Laboratory Management

Definition:

Medical Laboratory Management refers to the administration of medical laboratories, ensuring they operate efficiently and comply with legal, ethical, and quality standards. It involves overseeing the technical, operational, and personnel aspects of laboratory practice.

Detailed Explanation:

1. Laboratory Organization:
   • Laboratory Sections: Clinical chemistry, microbiology, haematology, blood bank, molecular biology, etc.
   • Staffing: Includes laboratory technicians, technologists, pathologists, and lab managers.
2. Quality Control and Assurance:
   • Ensures accurate test results by implementing standard operating procedures (SOPs) and performing regular equipment calibration.
   • External Quality Assessment (EQA): Participates in inter-laboratory comparison to ensure accuracy.
3. Laboratory Accreditation:
   • Laboratories are often accredited by national or international bodies like the College of American Pathologists (CAP) or ISO 15189 standards.
4. Inventory Management:
   • Involves tracking reagents, equipment, and consumables to ensure continuous operations and avoid stockouts.
5. Laboratory Safety:
   • Involves adherence to biosafety guidelines to handle biohazardous materials safely, proper disposal of medical waste, and ensuring staff safety.
6. Regulatory Compliance:
   • Laboratories must comply with health regulations and medical standards (e.g., HIPAA, CLIA).
7. Training and Development:
   • Ongoing education for laboratory personnel to stay updated with new technologies, methodologies, and best practices.