What is the main function of the skeletal system? The skeletal system provides structural support, protects vital organs, facilitates movement, stores minerals like calcium, and produces blood cells in the bone marrow.
Name two types of muscle tissue.
Skeletal muscle
Smooth muscle (Cardiac muscle is the third type.)
What is the function of red blood cells? Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues and carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs for exhalation.
Where does gas exchange occur in the respiratory system? Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli of the lungs.
What are the main organs of the digestive system? Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder.
Define homeostasis. Homeostasis is the process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment despite external changes.
What is the function of the kidneys? The kidneys filter waste products from the blood, regulate water and electrolyte balance, and maintain blood pressure by producing urine.
What is the role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system? The hypothalamus regulates hormone secretion from the pituitary gland and controls many physiological functions, including hunger, thirst, temperature, and circadian rhythms.
What type of muscle is found in the heart? Cardiac muscle.
What is the function of the nervous system? The nervous system controls and coordinates body functions, transmits signals between different body parts, and processes sensory information.
Long Questions:
Describe the structure and function of the human skeletal system. The skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints. It provides a framework for the body, protects organs (e.g., the skull protects the brain), facilitates movement through attachment to muscles, stores minerals, and produces blood cells in red bone marrow.
Explain the process of digestion and absorption of nutrients. Digestion begins in the mouth, where food is broken down mechanically and chemically. It continues in the stomach (acidic breakdown) and small intestine (enzymatic digestion). Nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are absorbed in the small intestine through villi into the bloodstream or lymph for transport to the cells.
Discuss the functioning of the cardiovascular system. The cardiovascular system includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart pumps oxygenated blood to tissues via arteries and returns deoxygenated blood to the lungs through veins. It also transports nutrients, hormones, and waste products and helps regulate body temperature.
Describe the mechanism of breathing and gas exchange in the lungs. Breathing involves inhalation (bringing air into the lungs) and exhalation (removing carbon dioxide). Inhaled oxygen diffuses into blood capillaries at the alveoli, while carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli for exhalation.
Explain the structure and function of the kidneys in the excretory system. The kidneys are bean-shaped organs with functional units called nephrons. They filter blood to remove waste, reabsorb essential substances, and regulate water, electrolytes, and blood pressure. The waste is excreted as urine.
Discuss the types and functions of muscles in the human body.
Skeletal muscles: Voluntary muscles attached to bones, enabling movement.
Smooth muscles: Involuntary muscles found in organs like the intestines and blood vessels, facilitating processes like digestion and circulation.
Cardiac muscles: Specialized involuntary muscles in the heart, enabling it to pump blood.
Describe the role of the nervous system in coordinating body functions. The nervous system comprises the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). It receives sensory inputs, processes information in the brain, and sends signals to effectors (muscles or glands) for responses. It regulates reflexes, voluntary movements, and homeostasis.
Explain the different types of hormones and their functions in the human body.
Steroid hormones (e.g., cortisol): Regulate metabolism and immune responses.
Peptide hormones (e.g., insulin): Control blood sugar levels.
Amino acid-derived hormones (e.g., adrenaline): Prepare the body for stress. Hormones maintain growth, metabolism, reproduction, and homeostasis.
Discuss the anatomy and function of the digestive system. The digestive system includes organs that process food: the mouth (chewing and saliva), stomach (chemical digestion), small intestine (nutrient absorption), large intestine (water absorption and waste formation), liver (bile production), pancreas (enzyme secretion), and gallbladder (bile storage).
Explain the relationship between the circulatory and respiratory systems. The respiratory system supplies oxygen to the blood and removes carbon dioxide. The circulatory system transports this oxygenated blood to tissues and brings deoxygenated blood back to the lungs. Both systems work together to maintain oxygen and carbon dioxide balance in the body.
Microbiology
Short Questions:
What is a pathogen? A pathogen is a microorganism, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, that causes disease in its host.
Name a bacterial disease. Tuberculosis (caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis).
What is Gram staining? Gram staining is a laboratory technique used to differentiate bacteria into Gram-positive and Gram-negative groups based on the structure of their cell walls.
What is the difference between a virus and a bacterium?
Bacteria are single-celled living organisms with cellular structures, capable of independent reproduction.
Viruses are non-living particles that require a host cell to reproduce and lack cellular structures.
Name two types of fungi.
Yeast (e.g., Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
Mold (e.g., Aspergillus species)
What is the function of ribosomes in bacteria? Ribosomes in bacteria synthesize proteins by translating messenger RNA (mRNA).
Define bacterial conjugation. Bacterial conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through direct cell-to-cell contact using a pilus.
What is an antigen? An antigen is a foreign substance, such as a protein or polysaccharide, that triggers an immune response in the body.
How do viruses reproduce? Viruses reproduce by infecting a host cell, using its machinery to replicate their genetic material, and assembling new viral particles.
What is the role of Escherichia coli in the human body? Escherichia coli (E. coli) in the gut aids digestion, produces essential vitamins (like vitamin K), and helps maintain gut microbiota balance. However, some strains can cause disease.
Long Questions:
Discuss the classification of bacteria based on shape and staining.
Gram-positive: Retain crystal violet dye due to thick peptidoglycan layer (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus).
Gram-negative: Do not retain crystal violet, appearing pink after counterstaining due to thinner peptidoglycan and an outer membrane (e.g., Escherichia coli).
Explain the life cycle of the Plasmodium parasite.
Human stage:
Mosquito bite injects sporozoites into the bloodstream.
Sporozoites infect liver cells and form schizonts, which release merozoites into the blood.
Merozoites infect red blood cells, multiply, and cause cycles of fever and chills.
Mosquito stage:
Gametocytes (sexual forms) are ingested by a mosquito during a blood meal.
In the mosquito gut, gametocytes mature into gametes, form a zygote, and develop into sporozoites, which migrate to the salivary glands.
Describe the structure of a virus and how it replicates.
Structure:
Genetic material (DNA or RNA).
Protein coat (capsid).
Some have an outer lipid envelope with surface proteins.
Replication:
Attachment to host cell receptors.
Entry into the cell and uncoating of viral material.
Replication using the host’s machinery.
Assembly of new viral particles.
Release through cell lysis or budding.
Explain the process of bacterial reproduction and its significance.
Most bacteria reproduce through binary fission, where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
Significance: Rapid reproduction allows bacteria to colonize environments, adapt through mutations, and sometimes develop resistance to antibiotics.
Discuss the role of fungi in human health and disease.
Health: Production of antibiotics (e.g., penicillin), food fermentation (e.g., yeast in bread and beer).
Disease: Cause infections like athlete’s foot (Trichophyton species) and systemic infections in immunocompromised individuals (e.g., Candida albicans causing candidiasis).
Explain the concept of immunity and how the body defends itself against pathogens.
Immunity involves innate (non-specific) and adaptive (specific) defenses.
Innate immunity: Includes barriers (skin, mucous), phagocytes, and inflammatory responses.
Adaptive immunity: Involves B cells (antibody production) and T cells (cell-mediated response).
Describe how Gram staining helps in identifying bacteria.
Gram staining differentiates bacteria based on cell wall structure.
Gram-positive bacteria stain purple due to thick peptidoglycan layers.
Gram-negative bacteria stain pink due to their thinner walls and outer membrane.
This distinction aids in selecting appropriate antibiotics.
Discuss the diseases caused by protozoa and their modes of transmission.
Malaria (Plasmodium): Transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes.
Amoebiasis (Entamoeba histolytica): Spread through contaminated water/food.
Explain the structure and function of a bacterial cell.
Structure:
Cell wall: Provides shape and protection.
Plasma membrane: Controls transport of substances.
Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
Nucleoid: Contains genetic material.
Pili and flagella: Facilitate attachment and movement.
Capsule: Enhances virulence.
Function: Bacteria carry out metabolic activities, reproduce, and interact with their environment.
Discuss the impact of microorganisms on the environment.
Positive impact:
Decomposition: Break down organic matter.
Nitrogen fixation: Convert atmospheric nitrogen into forms usable by plants (Rhizobium).
Bioremediation: Degrade pollutants.
Negative impact:
Cause diseases in plants, animals, and humans.
Spoilage of food and water contamination.
Biochemistry
Short Questions:
What is the function of enzymes? Enzymes act as biological catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.
Define glycogenesis. Glycogenesis is the process of synthesizing glycogen from glucose for energy storage in the liver and muscles.
What are lipids? Lipids are organic molecules that are hydrophobic and include fats, oils, and cholesterol. They store energy, form cell membranes, and act as signaling molecules.
What is the structure of DNA? DNA is a double helix composed of two strands made of nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a deoxyribose sugar, and one of four nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine).
Name the types of carbohydrates.
Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, fructose)
Disaccharides (e.g., sucrose, lactose)
Polysaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen)
What is ATP and why is it important? ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy currency of the cell, providing energy for cellular processes like metabolism, transport, and muscle contraction.
What are amino acids? Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, consisting of a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen atom, and an R group (side chain).
Define nucleic acids. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information and are composed of nucleotides.
What is the function of hemoglobin? Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues and carries carbon dioxide back to the lungs.
How are proteins synthesized? Proteins are synthesized through transcription (DNA to mRNA) and translation (mRNA to protein) involving ribosomes, tRNA, and amino acids.
Long Questions:
Discuss the structure and function of proteins in the human body.
Structure: Proteins are made of amino acid chains, folded into primary, secondary, tertiary, or quaternary structures.
Function: Proteins serve as enzymes, structural components (collagen), transporters (hemoglobin), signaling molecules (hormones), and antibodies in the immune system.
Explain the biochemical pathways involved in glucose metabolism.
Glycolysis: Converts glucose to pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.
Krebs cycle: Oxidizes acetyl-CoA, generating NADH, FADH2, and ATP.
Electron transport chain: Uses NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP via oxidative phosphorylation.
Gluconeogenesis: Synthesizes glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors.
Describe the structure and function of nucleic acids.
Structure: Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides, with DNA forming a double helix and RNA being single-stranded.
Function: DNA stores genetic information; RNA plays roles in protein synthesis and gene regulation.
Discuss the role of enzymes in biochemical reactions. Enzymes catalyze reactions by binding substrates at the active site, lowering activation energy, and increasing reaction speed without being consumed. They are specific to their substrates and regulated by factors like pH, temperature, and inhibitors.
Explain the role of lipids in energy storage. Lipids store energy in the form of triglycerides, which yield more energy per gram than carbohydrates. They are also essential for cell membrane structure and serve as precursors for hormones and vitamins.
Discuss the process of DNA replication. DNA replication is semi-conservative:
Helicase unwinds the DNA strands.
DNA polymerase synthesizes new complementary strands using the original strands as templates.
Leading and lagging strands are formed, with Okazaki fragments joined by DNA ligase.
Explain the structure of ATP and its role in energy transfer.
Structure: ATP consists of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups.
Role: ATP releases energy when the high-energy phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed, driving cellular processes like muscle contraction and active transport.
Describe the function and importance of carbohydrates.
Function: Carbohydrates provide energy (glucose), serve as structural components (cellulose in plants), and are involved in cell signaling (glycoproteins).
Importance: They are the primary energy source for cells and are stored as glycogen or starch.
Discuss the importance of vitamins and minerals in biochemistry.
Vitamins: Organic compounds required for enzyme cofactor functions (e.g., vitamin B in metabolism, vitamin D for calcium absorption).
Minerals: Inorganic elements involved in enzyme activity (e.g., zinc, magnesium), structural roles (calcium in bones), and maintaining fluid balance (sodium, potassium).
Explain the process of protein synthesis.
Transcription: DNA is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus.
Translation: mRNA travels to the ribosome, where tRNA matches amino acids to codons on the mRNA.
Peptide bonds form between amino acids, creating a polypeptide chain that folds into a functional protein.
pathology and lab tech
Short Questions:
What is the role of histopathology in diagnosing diseases? Histopathology involves studying tissues under a microscope to detect abnormalities, such as inflammation, infections, or cancer, aiding in accurate diagnosis and treatment planning.
Describe the principle of Gram staining. Gram staining differentiates bacteria based on their cell wall structure. Gram-positive bacteria retain the crystal violet dye due to a thick peptidoglycan layer, appearing purple, while Gram-negative bacteria, with a thinner layer, take up the counterstain (safranin) and appear pink.
What is the purpose of the Pap smear test? The Pap smear detects abnormal cells in the cervix, helping to screen for precancerous changes and cervical cancer.
Explain how blood smears are prepared and examined. A drop of blood is spread thinly on a glass slide, air-dried, and stained (e.g., with Wright-Giemsa stain). The smear is examined under a microscope to assess blood cell morphology and diagnose conditions like anemia or infections.
What is the use of PCR in microbiology? PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) amplifies specific DNA sequences, allowing the detection of pathogens, genetic mutations, or infections with high sensitivity and specificity.
What is the difference between light microscopy and electron microscopy?
Light microscopy: Uses visible light to magnify samples up to ~1000x, suitable for cells and tissues.
Electron microscopy: Uses electron beams for higher resolution (up to nanometer scale), ideal for ultrastructural studies of viruses, organelles, and molecules.
Describe the procedure for performing a liver function test (LFT). LFT involves collecting a blood sample and analyzing components like ALT, AST, bilirubin, and albumin to assess liver health and detect liver diseases.
What is the significance of Giemsa staining in pathology? Giemsa stain highlights cellular details, especially for blood smears and bone marrow samples, helping to diagnose parasitic infections (e.g., malaria) and hematological disorders.
What is the role of serological tests in diagnosing infections? Serological tests detect antibodies or antigens in the blood, helping diagnose infections such as HIV, hepatitis, and syphilis.
Define cytology and its applications in pathology. Cytology is the study of individual cells to diagnose diseases. Applications include Pap smears, fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC), and fluid cytology for detecting cancer and infections.
Long Questions:
Explain the steps involved in the preparation and staining of a blood smear.
Place a small drop of blood on one end of a clean glass slide.
Use a spreader slide to spread the blood evenly into a thin film.
Air-dry the smear completely.
Fix the smear with methanol.
Stain using Wright or Giemsa stain.
Wash with distilled water, air-dry, and examine under a microscope.
Discuss the various staining techniques used in histopathology and their applications.
Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E): Standard stain for tissues; hematoxylin stains nuclei blue, and eosin stains cytoplasm pink.
Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS): Highlights carbohydrates and glycogen.
Ziehl-Neelsen stain: Detects acid-fast bacteria like Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Immunohistochemistry (IHC): Identifies specific proteins using antibodies, aiding in cancer diagnosis.
Explain the role of electron microscopy in the diagnosis of viral infections. Electron microscopy provides high-resolution images of viruses, allowing visualization of their structure, size, and morphology. It is used to identify viral particles in clinical samples, such as in cases of herpesvirus or coronavirus.
Describe the steps involved in performing a Fine Needle Aspiration (FNA) and its significance in diagnosing tumors.
Insert a fine needle into the lesion using ultrasound or palpation guidance.
Aspirate cells by applying suction.
Smear the aspirated material on slides, fix, and stain.
Examine under a microscope to identify malignant, benign, or inflammatory changes. Significance: Minimally invasive and quick diagnostic tool for tumors and cysts.
Discuss the principles and applications of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in molecular pathology.
Principle: PCR amplifies specific DNA sequences using primers, nucleotides, and a heat-stable DNA polymerase through cycles of denaturation, annealing, and extension.
Describe the process of tissue fixation and embedding in histopathology.
Fixation: Preserves tissues using fixatives like formalin to prevent decomposition.
Processing: Dehydrate the tissue in alcohol, clear with xylene, and infiltrate with paraffin wax.
Embedding: Encapsulate tissue in paraffin wax to create a block for sectioning.
Explain the concept of flow cytometry and its role in diagnosing hematological diseases.
Concept: Flow cytometry uses lasers to analyze physical and chemical properties of cells in suspension, measuring parameters like size, granularity, and protein expression.
Role: Diagnoses leukemia, lymphoma, and immune deficiencies by identifying abnormal cell populations.
Discuss the procedure for performing a kidney function test and the components analyzed.
Procedure: A blood sample is collected for biochemical analysis.
Components: Urea, creatinine, electrolytes (e.g., sodium, potassium), and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) to assess kidney health and function.
Explain the role of clinical biochemistry in diagnosing metabolic disorders and provide examples.
Role: Analyzes blood and urine for biochemical markers to diagnose and monitor diseases.
Examples:
Diabetes: Elevated blood glucose and HbA1c.
Hyperlipidemia: Increased cholesterol and triglycerides.
Thyroid disorders: Abnormal T3, T4, and TSH levels.
1. Histopathology
Short Questions with Detailed Answers
Define histopathology. Histopathology is the branch of pathology that deals with the microscopic examination of tissues to study the manifestations of disease. It is essential for diagnosing and understanding various diseases, especially cancers.
What is the importance of tissue fixation? Tissue fixation preserves the structure of cells and tissues, prevents autolysis (self-digestion) and putrefaction (decay), and prepares the tissue for further processing and staining.
Name any two types of fixatives.
Formalin (10% neutral buffered formalin)
Bouin’s solution
What is the function of formalin in histopathology? Formalin cross-links proteins, preserving tissue morphology and preventing enzymatic degradation.
Mention two differences between biopsy and autopsy.
Biopsy: Removal of living tissue for diagnostic purposes.
Autopsy: Examination of tissues after death to determine the cause of death.
What is microtomy? Microtomy is the process of cutting very thin slices of tissue sections using a microtome, which are then mounted on slides for microscopic examination.
Define paraffin embedding. It is the process of infiltrating tissues with molten paraffin wax to form a solid block, which can be sectioned easily for microscopic studies.
Name the most commonly used staining technique in histopathology. Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) staining is the most commonly used technique.
What is the purpose of decalcification? Decalcification is the process of removing calcium salts from calcified tissues (e.g., bones) to allow for smooth sectioning and microscopic examination.
Define cryostat. A cryostat is a specialized device used for cutting frozen tissue sections, typically for rapid diagnosis during surgeries.
Long Questions with Detailed Answers
Explain the steps involved in tissue processing. Tissue processing includes the following steps:
Fixation: Preserves tissue integrity by preventing decomposition.
Dehydration: Gradual removal of water using increasing concentrations of alcohol.
Clearing: Removes alcohol and prepares tissue for embedding, commonly using xylene.
Embedding: Infiltrates tissue with molten paraffin to form a block.
Sectioning: Thin slices are cut using a microtome.
Staining: Tissue sections are stained for microscopic evaluation.
Describe the types of fixatives with examples and their uses.
Explain different types of biopsies with examples.
Excisional Biopsy: Entire lesion is removed (e.g., skin tumor removal).
Incisional Biopsy: A portion of tissue is removed (e.g., liver biopsy).
Needle Biopsy: Tissue is extracted using a needle (e.g., breast biopsy).
2. Hematology
Short Questions with Detailed Answers
Define hematology. Hematology is the study of blood, its components, and associated disorders. It includes the analysis of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma.
What is the normal range of hemoglobin in adult males? The normal hemoglobin range for adult males is 13-17 g/dL.
Name two anticoagulants used in hematology.
EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic Acid)
Heparin
Define erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR). ESR is the rate at which red blood cells settle at the bottom of a tube in one hour. It indicates inflammation.
What is the role of a hemocytometer? A hemocytometer is a device used for manual counting of blood cells.
Name two diseases related to abnormal hemoglobin levels.
Anemia (low hemoglobin levels)
Thalassemia (abnormal hemoglobin structure).
What is the function of platelets? Platelets play a critical role in blood clotting and wound healing.
Define hematocrit. Hematocrit is the percentage of red blood cells in blood, measured as part of a complete blood count (CBC).
Name two staining techniques used in hematology.
Leishman stain
Giemsa stain
What is the purpose of a peripheral blood smear? A peripheral blood smear is used to study the morphology of blood cells to diagnose conditions like anemia and leukemia.
Long Questions with Detailed Answers
Describe the procedure for performing a complete blood count (CBC).
Blood is collected using an anticoagulant (e.g., EDTA).
Automated analyzers measure RBC, WBC, platelet counts, hemoglobin, hematocrit, and red cell indices (MCV, MCH, MCHC).
Write in detail about the principles and methods of ESR determination.
Westergren Method: Blood is mixed with an anticoagulant and placed in a vertical tube. ESR is measured after one hour.
Clinical Significance: Elevated ESR indicates inflammation or infection.
3. Fundamentals of MLT
Short Questions with Detailed Answers
Define Medical Laboratory Technology. It is the branch of medical science that involves diagnosing and monitoring diseases through the analysis of biological samples like blood, urine, and tissues.
Name two common types of laboratory glassware.
Beakers
Test tubes
What is the function of a centrifuge? A centrifuge separates components of a mixture based on density, such as separating plasma from blood cells.
Mention two precautions to be taken while handling biological specimens.
Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).
Properly label and handle samples to avoid contamination.
Define quality control in the lab. Quality control ensures accuracy, precision, and reliability of laboratory test results through regular checks and standards.
Name two types of laboratory hazards.
Chemical hazards (e.g., acids, solvents)
Biological hazards (e.g., infectious agents)
What is the purpose of disinfection in the lab? Disinfection eliminates or reduces harmful microorganisms to ensure a safe working environment.
Define laboratory ethics. Laboratory ethics involves adhering to principles of integrity, confidentiality, and accuracy in reporting results.
Name two commonly used laboratory equipment.
Microscope
Pipette
What is the importance of sample labeling? Proper labeling prevents sample mix-ups and ensures traceability, accuracy, and validity of test results.
Long Questions with Detailed Answers
Discuss the roles and responsibilities of a medical laboratory technician.
Collect and handle biological specimens.
Perform laboratory tests and procedures.
Maintain and calibrate equipment.
Ensure quality control and accurate reporting.
Explain in detail the importance of laboratory safety and precautions.
Use of PPE, proper waste disposal, and handling hazardous chemicals to prevent accidents and infections.
Write about the principles and applications of a microscope.
Principle: Magnification of small objects using lenses.
Applications: Observing cells, bacteria, and tissue samples for diagnosis.
Discuss the steps involved in the collection and handling of biological specimens.
Use sterile containers, label specimens accurately, and transport under proper conditions to preserve integrity.
